India 244: Mt. Everest (issued 10-2-1953)

Mountain Symbolism Summary Edited by Peter Y. Chou WisdomPortal.com

Japan #226: Mt. Fuji (issued 7-10-1936)

Preface: From my personal library, typed pages on mountain symbolism from the following books— J.E. Cirlot, A Dictionary of Symbols (1971), J.C. Cooper, An Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional Symbols (1978), Jean Chevalier & Alain Gheerbrant, The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols (1996), G.A. Gaskell, Dictionary of All Scriptures and Myths (1960), Harold Bayley, The Lost Language of Symbolism (1912), Barbara G. Walker, The Woman's Dictionary of Symbols & Sacred Objects (1988), Nadia Julien, Mammoth Dictionary of Symbols (1996), Wolfram Eberhard, A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols (1986), E.T.C. Werner, Myths and Legends of China (1984), C.A.S. Williams, Chinese Symbolism & Art Motifs (1974). For unabridged version see Mountain Symbolism.

J.E. Cirlot, A Dictionary of Symbols (1971), pp. 208-211. Mountain's height, verticality, mass and shape. Ania Teillard equates mountain with inner 'loftiness' of spirit. In alchemy, the hollow mountain is a cavern of the 'philosophers' oven. Vertical axis of the mountain from its peak down to its base links it with the world-axis, and, anatomically, with the spinal column. The Chinese link the mountain's grandiose proportions with greatness and generosity of the Emperor. But the profoundest symbolism is one that imparts a sacred character by uniting the concept of mass, as an expression of being, with the idea of verticality. Seen from above, the mountain grows gradually wider, and in this respect it corresponds to the inverted tree whose roots grow up toward heaven while its foliage points downwards, thereby expressing multiplicity, the universe

in expansion, involution and materialization. This is why Eliade says that 'the peak of the cosmic mountain is not only the highest point on earth, it is also the earth's navel, the point where creation had its beginning— the root (Images et Symboles, 1952). The mystic sense of the peak also comes from the fact that it is the point of contact between heaven and earth, or the centre through which the world-axis passes, binding the three levels together. This was the predominating characteristic of Mount Olympus, the supreme, celestial mountain which Schneider sees as corresponding to Jupiter and equivalent to the principle of the number one. It has been called the 'mountain of stone' and is at once the abode of the living (the exterior of the mountain) and the dead (the hollow interior). In Western tradition, the mountain-symbol appears in the legend of the Grail, as Montsalvat (the 'mountain of salvation' or 'of health')— just as much a 'polar mountain' as it is a 'sacred island', according to Guenon; but always it is inaccessible or difficult to find (like 'centre' of the labyrinth). In general, the mountain, the hill and the mountain-top are all associated with the idea of meditation, spiritual elevation and the communion of the blessed.

J.C. Cooper, Illustrated Encyclopedia of Traditional Symbols (1978), p. 109. Cosmic Mountain is a world centre, an omphalos, 'through which the polar axis runs.' Highest point of the earth is regarded as central, summit of Paradise, meeting place in the clouds of heaven & earth. As axial & central it provides passage from one plane to another and communion with the gods; it is also the abode of the gods. Mountain symbolizes constancy; eternity; firmness; stillness. Mountain tops are associated with sun, rain and thunder gods. In early traditions of the feminine godhead, mountain was the earth & female, with sky, clouds, thunder & lightning as the fecundating male. On the spiritual level mountain tops represent the state of full consciousness. Pilgrimages up sacred mountains symbolize aspiration, renunciation of worldly desires, attaining to highest states.

Jean Chevalier & Alain Gheerbrant, The Penguin Dictionary of Symbols (1996), pp. 680-685 Mountain symbolism takes many forms deriving from height and centre. In so far as mountains are tall, lofty, rising abruptly to meet the Heavens, they form part of the symbolism of transcendence and, in so far as they are so often numinous places where the gods have revealed their presence, they share in the symbolism of manifestation. Mountains are places where Heaven and Earth meet, where the gods have their home and human ascension its boundary. Viewed from above, the vertical point of their peaks make them the centres of the world: seen from below, they stand against the horizon like World Axes, their slopes like a ladder to be climbed. Mountains also conveys stability,

changelessness, and, purity. They are home of the gods and their ascent is represented as an exaltation heavenwards and as a means of entering into a relationship with the godhead. Taoist Immortals ascended into Heaven from mountain tops and it was there that messages for Heaven were placed. Dante places the Earthly Paradise on the peak of Mount Purgatory. Clearly the ascent is of a spiritual nature, upwards towards knowledge. In Chinese classical painting mountains are contrasted with water as yang with yin, the changeless with the ephemeral, the former being most often depicted as a rock, the latter as a waterfall. Mountains symbolize the longing for initiation as well as perils. Holy mountains are places of solitude and meditation, by contrast with the lowlands where mankind lives. As an area's focal point, mountain peaks symbolize bounds of human development and the psychic function of the supraconscious which is, in fact, to lead mankind to the peak of its development.

G.A. Gaskell, Dictionary of All Scriptures and Myths (1960), pp. 514-517 Avenel Books, New York , 846 pp. Mountain or Mount: A symbol of aspiration towards ideals, or the rise of the soul to higher planes of consciousness. "And seeing the multitudes, he went up into the mountain: and when he had sat down, his disciples came unto him: and he opened his mouth and taught them... And when he was come down from the mountain, great multitudes followed him." (Matthew, 5:1 & 8:1). Going up a mountain corresponds to the ascent of the Divine nature in the soul. In that state the disciplined qualities (disciples) are instructed & brought into harmony with the Christ. "Sitting down" signifies suiting instruction to lower comprehension of the qualities. "While the Lord taught on the mount, the disciples were with

Him, for to them it was given to know the secret things of the heavenly doctrine: but now as He came down from the mount the crowds followed Him, who had been altogether unable to ascend into the mount. They that are bowed by the burden of sin cannot climb to the sublime mysteries. But when the Lord came down from the mount that is, stooped to the infirmity and helplessness of the rest, in pity to their imperfections, great multitudes followed Him. — Pseudo-Origen, Hom. in Liv., 5. Mountain Top: A symbol of the higher planes—atma and buddhi. Mountain (Lower Aspect): A symbol of self-exalted qualities of the lower nature, such as pride, vanity, ambition, greed, desire for power over others, which qualities must be transmuted into aspiration zeal, public spirit, etc. Mountains: A symbol of aspirations; the attainment of ideals; and the higher states of consciousness. "I praise the cloud and rain which make thy body grow on the summit of the mountains. I praise the high mountains where thou hast grown, O Homa!" — Homa Yasht, Haugh, Essays. "Praise", or the sense of appreciative love, is extended to the wisdom (cloud) and truth (rain) which are the means of accelerating the growth of the aspiring higher emotions. The "high mountains" symbolize the state of highest attainment— the Atman— and through this consummation the Self (Homa) knows and becomes Itself. "Let the mountains receive peace for thy people, and the hills righteousness" (Psalms 72:3). "The 'mountains' are lofty souls, the 'hills' little souls. But for this reason do the mountains receive peace, that the hills may be able to receive righteousness. What is the righteousness which the hills receive? Faith, for 'the just doth live by faith.' The smaller souls, however, would not receive faith unless the greater souls, which are called mountains, were illuminated by Wisdom herself, that they may be able to transmit to the little ones what the little ones can receive; and the 'hills' live by faith, because the 'mountains' receive peace." — Augustine, Gospel of John, Vol. I, p. 2. Olympus, Mount: A symbol of the height of perfection and attainment; or the plane of atma, the summit of manifestation. The three intermediate, namely, buddhi (Hera), manas (Hermes), & kama (Hades), have above them atma (Olympus), below them sthula (Earth).

Harold Bayley, The Lost Language of Symbolism (1912), Mountain Symbolism in Chapter III: The Ways of Ascent (pp. 32-54) Briquet reproduces upwards of 300 devices (dating from 1318) which he describes as "Mounts, Mountains, or Hills." They are emblems of what Bunyan terms the Delectable Mountains— those Holy Hills to which the Psalmist lifted his eyes, and which, according to Obadiah, "dropped sweet wine". The mystics gloried in the belief that they "walked with the Lord, treading and tripping over the pleasant mountains of the Heavenly Land", and their eyes were strained perseveringly eastward in expectation of Christ's speedy coming over the hills of Bether. (p. 34) In Allegory, hills or mountains frequently imply Meditation & Heavenly Communion, and for this reason the legend runs that the Holy Grail

was preserved on the summit of Montsalvat, the Mountain of Salvation. (p. 35) The Mountains of Myrrh and the Hills of Frankincense, to which the writer of The Song of Solomon 4:6 says he will retreat, are ideally the same as those "silver mountains" over which, according to Sir Walter Raleigh— "My soul, like quiet palmer, Travelleth towards the land of heaven." In Emblem they were represented as three, five, or six, but most usally as three. Among the Jews, the three-peaked Mount Olives was esteemed to be holy, and accounted to be the residence of the Deity. Mount Meru, the Indian holy mountain, was said to have three peaks composed of gold, silver, and iron; it was venerated as the dwelling place of the Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. The Fleur de Lys of Light poised before our face is Christ the Lord, who will lead us to the tops of the mountains in the bonds of Charity." (p. 36) To convey this same idea of the Spirit dwelling on the mountain-tops, the deviser of figs. 73 and 74 (Google Books) has employed the familiar symbol of the Dove. The followers of the Holy Spirit were themselves considered to be Doves— "Be ye harmless as doves". In the Holy Converse between St. Francis and the Lady Poverty, it is recorded that certain men "all began at once to follow after the blessed Frances, and whilst with most easy steps they were hastening to the heights, behold the Lady Poverty standing on the top of that self-same mountain looked down over the steeps of the hill, and seeing those men so stoutly climbing— nay, flying up, ['winged' by aspiration]— she wondered greatly, and said: 'Who are these who come flying like clouds and like doves to their windows?' And behold a voice came to her and said: 'Be not afraid, O daughter of Zion, for these men are the seed whom the Lord has blessed and chosen in love unfeigned.' Mysticism has universally taught that every man has within himself the germs or seeds of Divinity, and that by self-conquest these sparks of Heaven may be fanned into a flame, the flame into a fire, the fire into a star, and the star into a sun. (p. 41) Each of the various Virtues and Graces had its own distinctive symbol, by means of which were expressed the s everal ways of ascent. The first of the Ways was purity and aspiration. "Who shall ascend the Hill of the Lord?" asks the Psalmist, and the condition follows, "He that has clean hands and a pure heart." (Psalms 24:3-4) The Way of solitude and Purity was symbolized by the Stag, which was also regarded as a type of religious aspiration, probably from the passage in the Psalms, "Like as the stag pants for the water brooks." There was an old belief that the stag, though a timorous creature, had a ruthless antipathy to snakes, which it labored to destroy; hence it came to be regarded as an apt emblem of the Christian fighting against evils. (F.E. Hulme, Symbolism in Christian Art, p. 176) (pp. 44-45) The mystics beheld themselves as an unbroken procession of human temples, and the Holy Grail for which each strove was the ever-expanding ideal of his own aspirations. The roadways to the Quest thus far illustrated have been Purity, Aspiration, Justice, Charity, Humility, Hope, & Unselfish Service. (p. 52)

Barbara G. Walker, The Woman's Dictionary of Symbols & Sacred Objects (1988), pp. 346-347 The letter M seems to have been based on symbols of the twin peaks of the holy mountain, which were often seen as breasts of the Great Mother. The Epic of Gilgamesh describes such a holy mountain, Mashu, whose "paps" reach down to the underworld; she gives birth to the sun and she is as high as the walls of heaven. A similar Mountain Mother, Ninhursag, gave birth to the world in Sumerian myth; she was also a Cow-goddess, milk-giver to the kings, who qualified for the throne by becoming her nurslings. The oldest deity in Greece was the Divine Mountain Mother, Gaea Olympia, the first owner of Mount Olympus before the takeover by her upstart grandson Zeus. She was called

Universal Mother, Oldest of Deities, and Deep-Breasted One. She controlled several mountain shrines including the Delphic oracle, which was later usurped by Apollo. One of the oldest deities in India was Chomo-Lung-"Goddess Mother of the Universe", whose mountain shrine is now known to Westerners by a man's name, Everest. Still feminine, however, is the Himalayan peak Annapurna, meaning "Great Breast Full of Nourishment". The idea of universal breast milk flowing down from mountain peaks was common to both East and West. The Japanese symbol of mountains is an M-design with two beastlike peaks. The four rivers of paradise were often equated with streams of the Mother's milk. With snowcaps, melting into glacial streams made white with rock dust, probably put the idea into heads of all people living within sight of high mountains. Often the Goddess as creator of the world began her activities with mountain-making. Magic mountains throughout Europe remained sacred to the Goddess and so acquired the reputation of witch shrines Germany had several Venusbergs. Other peaks in Italy and Britain remained matriarchal pilgrimage centers. Many pagan heroes awaited rebirth from holy mountain wombs. Merlin and Thomas Rhymer were said to sleep under the Eildon hills. Epimenides, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, slept in Rhea's holy cave on Mount Dicte. The pagan Earth Mother was thinly disguised as a fictitious saint in western France, where she was worshipped at a holy mount by the river Sevre. She was described as "drawing from her apron the fertile seed" and throwing it into the furrow with her blessings. Miraculous growths of grain were attributed to her influence. The Mother still shelters the pagan dead as the holy mountain Helgafell in Iceland and upholds the pagan gods as Teutonic Himinbjorg or "Heaven-Mountain".

Nadia Julien, Mammoth Dictionary of Symbols, (1996) Mountain: axis of the world, pp. 281-282 Every country has a sacred mountain as a need for providential protection: there is Portala in Tibet, Hindu Mount Meru, Celts' White Mountain, Jews' Mount Tabor, Moslems' Qaf, Chinese K'uen-luen, Christians' Golgotha (summit of the cosmic mountain and Adam's tomb). • In flat countries mountain had a substitute, such as a cairn (a heap of stones sheltering Celtic tombs in Gaul & Great Britain), tumulus, pyramid, monument (Buddhist stupa, Islamic Kuba, an Arab building made up of a cubic base & covered by dome built over tomb of a venerated person), Omphalos

at Delphos, a menhir (erect stone), or bactyl (a sacred meteoric stone). The belfry or clocktower in a village is a modern equivalent of the cosmic mountain. Temples and towns were assimilated into the cosmic mountain: the Temple of Barabudur built in the form of a mountain, the Babylonian ziggurat, the Buddhist nine-storied pagoda in China. • The summit of the cosmic mountain is also the starting point of creation, the navel of the world in which the first man was created. 'Paradise where Adam was created from mud was, of course, the centre of the cosmos, and, according to Syrian tradition, was on a mountain that was higher than any other, and where he was also buried, that is to say, on Golgotha, where the blood of the Saviour would redeem him. The mountain forms a real link between heaven and the underworld. • Mountain is simultaneously the centre and axis of the universe and as such is thought to contain divine inspiration. Its summit is the centre of the world, the junction between heaven and earth. As the pilgrim climbs it, he grows closer to the centre of the world, and as he reaches higher ground he enters a new level, transcending profane, heterogenerous space, and entering a pure land. And so the mountain is a symbol of transcendeny, the culminating point of ascension and spiritual elevation. It is on a mountain summit that the prophet enters into communication with divinity (Moses received Ten Commandments on Mount Sinai). • In ancient China, mountains 'guaranteed the solid permanence of the universe' and symbolized immortality (a mountain landslide is an infallible sign of the end of a dynasty, the presence and proximity of the gods). Worship of five mountains situated between the five cardinal points was practiced. The five mountains were dominated by a Taoist temple, refuge of the immortals, who thus found themselves nearer to heaven, and it was from here that they flew to the isles of paradise. It was on these mountains that 'the ten thousand things [an infinite number] have their origin and yin & yang alternated. • Mountains cause clouds and rain: in the iconography, a mountain encircled by clouds symbolized the earth. • In dreams a high mountain symbolizes danger or a perilous situation. Climbing a mountain depicts inner elevation.

Wolfram Eberhard, A Dictionary of Chinese Symbols (1986), pp. 194-197 Mountain: shan In ancient China, mountains were special objects of veneration. Indeed, mountains played the same sort of role in Chinese cosmology as the Emperor did in society: they ensured cosmic order and permanence. The cult of the 'Five Mountains' (Wu yue) has persisted into modern times. From time immemorial these five mountains have been places of sacrifice. They represent all five directions. Tai-shan is in Shandong in the East; Heng-shan is in Hunan in the South; Song-shan is in Henan in the Centre; Hua-shan is in Shanxi in the West; & finally, Heng-shan is in Shanxi in the North. (Heng in the latter word is written

with a different character from that used for the Hen-shan in Hunan.) All five are wooded, which is a rarity in China, and numerous Taoist temples crown their summits. Along with these five mountains there are a few more which are sacred to Buddhists, especially O-mi in the western province of Sichuan. In ancient times, the West was seen as the realm of the mountains. In the mysterious North-West towered the Kunlun, which we might well compare with the world-mountain Sumeru of Indian legend: each had nine terraces. In the fabled Kunlun were palaces, hanging gardensm springs from which the water of life flowed. Whoever succeeded in climbing all the steps leading up to the Kunlun attained immortality. Indeed the 'Supreme One' (tai yi) dwelt in the Kunlun. The only divinity who received visitors in the Kunlun, however, was the Queen Mother of the West (Xi wang-mu). This is probably connected with an earlier belief according to which mountains especially the Kunlun were regarded as the place where 'the ten thousand things have their origins and where yin and yang alternate with each other forever'. Virtually every mountain had it resident mountain god. The late classical belief that the spirits of the dead live in the mountains, persisted in North China, and sacrifices were accordingly made to mountains. It was the mountain which generated clouds and rain, the Chinese believed. In pictures, cloud-capped mountains symbolize the earth, while waves symbolize the sea. The expression 'mountains and seas' (shan hai) refers to China as a whole; and this is also the title of the oldest geography book. A most solemn oath was to swear by 'mountain-oath and sea-oath' (shan men hai shi). The expression 'middle mountain' (zhong yue) may refer to the human nose. A landslip in the mountains was taken as an unmistakable sign that the ruling dynasty's days were numbered: for mountain and Emperor corresponded to and reflected each other.

E.T.C. Werner, Myths and Legends of China (1984), Sacred Mountains in China pp. 127, 242, 345-346 There were three Censors who lived in the reign of King Li (Li Wang, 878-841 B.C.) of the Chou dynasty... They appeared to protect the Emperor Chên Tsung when he was offering the Fêng-shan sacrifices on T'ai Shan in 1008 A.D., on which occasion they were canonized with titles of Superior, Medium, & Inferior Causes, as before, conferring upon them regencies of Heaven, earth, & water respectively. (p. 127) These gods are called the Wu Yüeh, 'Five Mountains', and are worshipped in the temple San-i Ko at Ju-kao, especially in outbreaks of contagious diseases and fevers. A sufferer goes to the temple and promises

offerings to the gods in the event of recovery. The customary offering is five small wheaten loaves, called sho ping, and a pound of meat. (p. 242) The Demon-king saw him from the top of the mountain and said to himself: "This Monkey is famous for his magic, but I will prove that he is no match for me; I will yet feast on his Master." So, descending the mountain, he transformed himself into a lame beggar and waited by the roadside. The Master, out of pity, persuaded the Monkey to carry him. While on the Monkey's back, the Demon, by magic skill, threw Mount Meru on to Monkey's head, but the Monkey warded it off with his right shoulder, and walked on. Then the Demon threw Mount Omei on to Monkey's head, and this he warded off with his right shoulder, and walked on, much to the Demon's surprise. Lastly the Demon caused T'ai Shan to fall on his head. This at last stunned the Monkey... When Monkey found that he was being crushed under the mountain he was greatly distressed about his Master... Guardian angels & local gods then recited some prayers, & the mountain was removed. (pp. 345-346)

C.A.S. Williams, Chinese Symbolism & Art Motifs (1974) Mount Meru p. 195, Mount Omei p. 334, Mount T'ai p. 376, Mountains p. 409 Mount Meru: The Heavenly Guardians or Deva Kings (Sanskrit, Lokapalas) were four Indian brothers, also called the Diamond Kings. These four celestial potentates are fabled in later Buddhist tradition as ruling legions of supernatural beings who guard the slopes of Paradise (Mount Meru), and they are worshipped as protecting deities of Buddhist sanctuaries. Pu K'ung, a Cingales Buddhistm is said to have introduced their worship in the 8th century A.D. They protect the world against the attacks of evil spirits, and their statues, gigantic in size, are to be seen at the entrance to Buddhist temples, two on each side. (p. 195)

Mount Omei: P'u Hsien (Sanskrit, Samantabhadra), the "All Gracious", a Bodhisattva who, though not very prominent in Indian Buddhism, is very popular in China. He is the patron saint of Mount Omei in Szechuan, where there are many temples in his honor. His Sanskrit name means "Great Activity". He is represented with a greenish face, wears a yellow robe with a red collar, and rides upon a white elephant. This elephant could change into a man, and fought with P'u Hsien, was conquered by him, and allowed him to ride on his back. Some representations of this deity have a very feminine appearance, which is due to the fact that the gods have the power of changing their sex at will. (p. 334) Mount T'ai: Mount T'ai, in Shantung, has the epithet of "eminent" attached to it as it is the most famous of all the mountains of China. A stone from this sacred mountain is believed to have the power to ward off demons, though any local stone may be employed. The following inscription is ut upon it: "This stone from Mount T'ai dares to oppose", and it is sometimes erected at sharp turnings of the road where evil influences are considered likely to strike against it. No doubt the origin of the motto is partly due to the security offered by Mount T'ai in times of flood and Yellow River disaster in Shantung, and to its former use in the worship of the sun. (p. 376) Mountain as one of Twelve Ornaments: Many of the designs employed in the decoration of textile fabrics are undoubtedly of great antiquity. Among the earliest is a group of symbols known as the Twelve Ornaments, which signified authority and power, and were embroidered on vestments of state. They are as follows: (1) The Sun with a three-legged raven in it; (2) The Moon with a hare in it, pounding the drug of immortality; (3) Three Stars: Orion, Musca, Draco; (4) Mountains; regarded with great appreciation by the Chinese, who hold some of them as sacred; (5) Dragon: symbol of strength; (6) Phoenix: symbol of peace; (7) Two Goblets with an animal on each; (8) Spray of Pondweed: purity symbol; (9) Flames of Fire: brightness symbol; (10) Grains of Rice; symbol of nourishment; (11) Axe: symbol of courage; (12) Figure Ya: Two chi back to back, symbolizes capability to make a distinction between right & wrong. (pp. 409-410)

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